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our mental health through the power of our own will? Is there a way to achieve bodily health to the
extent it is possible through the mental power? The letters focused first and foremost on answering
these questions. Descartes recommended Elisabeth to concentrate not on her illness and on the
negative events around her, but on intellectual topics that would keep her mind positively busy. 27
However, this issue was exactly what Elisabeth had been complaining about: due to the “weaknesses
of her sex,” she was not able to concentrate on intellectual works as much as she wanted. 28
Accordingly, the subject‐matter of discussion turns out to be whether it lies in our power to do or
not to do something. Although the mind is able to act on the matter, it is not capable of changing its
laws. Therefore, it cannot be totally free to the extent it is connected to, and dependent on matter.
Those, which are within our power, those we are responsible for are only our thoughts. What we
should do is first to think thoroughly before making decision and once we decide, we should not
change our mind. These considerations give way to the questions whether we are free or not;
whether the God’s foreknowledge of everything renders our freedom impossible or not: If God
knows everything that will be as much as he knows everything that was and that is, how can one
decide and how can one act freely? 29
Similarly, what happiness is and how one can be happy are some other questions which are
considered in the letters, within the context of mind‐body dualism. Starting from a reading of Seneca,
Descartes reaches a conception of happiness according to which things that make us happy are
distinguished into two; those which depend on us and those which do not. Those which are in our
power are regarded to be superior to those which are not totally under our control; e.g., virtue and
wisdom are superior to fame, richness and health. 30 These discussions might have claimed to be
influential upon Elisabeth’s decision to cloister in the years that followed.
In the winter of 1645‐1646, Descartes wrote The Passions of the Soul in reply to Elisabeth’s
questions. This book is themed on explaining the nature of the interaction between soul and body,
how a human can control his passions by his will, how he will then be able to make more accurate
decisions and live a morally good life. He finds the theoretical possibility for this interaction in action
and passion to be the same thing. What is called action with respect to the body is generally passion
with respect to the soul. In that sense, the proper actions of the soul are only volitions which depend
on soul alone, excluding all bodily causes. However by the term passion, he particularly means
emotions of the soul, excluding perceptions and sensations, “not only because this term may be
applied to all changes which occur in the soul … but more particularly because, of all the kinds of
thought which the soul may have, there are none that agitate and disturb it so strongly as the
passions.” 31 Although sensations refer to external objects or to our own body, passions refer to the
soul. Passions of the soul are similar to volitions with respect to referring to the soul itself. However
unlike volitions all of which are caused by the soul itself, they are caused by the motions of animal
spirits and in that respect they are similar to sensations. According to Descartes all motions of the
human body can be explained mechanically through heart, nerves, brain, pineal gland and animal
spirits. The pineal gland is, in his view, the seat of the soul in the brain. Although the soul, having no
extension, is not related to any part of the body, it is related to the whole assemblage of body’s
organs. However it exercises its functions more particularly in the pineal gland. 32 In the case of
passions, the motions of animal spirits ‐which are very fine and active parts of the blood that can
alone enter into cavities of brain 33 ‐ affect the soul through affecting the pineal gland. In the case of
volitions, it is just the opposite; the soul puts the animal spirits into motion through the pineal gland.
Although it is not easy for the soul to control its passions because of the disturbance which takes
place in the body, through its will, it can prevent many of the movements to which it disposes the
body. 34 Someone who is angry cannot prevent his face from turning red, but he can control his arms.
The power by means of which the soul can control its passions is the will. According to Descartes,
there may be three ways for controlling them. First of all, the will cannot arouse or suppress the
passions directly; but it can do that indirectly ‐ that is to say through considering the consequences of
following its passions. Secondly, the problems with passions are related to their changing, unstable
and conflicting nature. Resoluteness of the will is the criterion for its strength. Even if the soul does
not know what the good and the bad are, it can consistently and decisively follow its own judgments.