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citizens and political actors does indeed influence the negotiations over the visibility
of Islam in public space.
We should also not overlook the international influence from those Muslim
countries, such Algeria and Morocco in France and Turkey in Germany, that are
active in immigrant communities. In all the case-studies which follow, the continuing
interaction between the local, the national and the international levels is an essential
element in the public response to Islamic demands.
Notes
[1] It is difficult, indeed impossible, to obtain accurate statistics, because in the majority of
European countries formal census data regarding religious affiliations do not exist. The only
substitute statistic that might be taken into account is the number of immigrants born in
countries where Islam is the principal religion. However, Muslims who have become citizens
either through naturalisation or because they were born in the country (a right specific to
certain states), will not be taken into account by such statistics. For country-specific details
see Mare´chal et al . (2003); also Gerholm and Lithman (1988); Lewis and Schnapper (1994);
Nonneman et al . (1996); Vertovec and Peach (1997).
[2] See the work of the ‘Network of Comparative Research on Islam and Muslims in Europe’
(NOCRIME) online at http://www.euro-islam.info. Their work borrows much from a strain
of research that accords prime importance to the dialectic process in the analysis of
interactions between groups and cultures, notably when the recognition of one group by
another group is at stake.
1022 J. Cesari
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[3] Sadly, Ottavia Schmidt di Friedberg died before her paper in this issue appeared.
[4] The number significantly increased following two changes to the law. The first, in 1985,
authorised non-citizens of Holland who have been living in the country for at least five years
to vote in local elections. The second made it possible, as of 1991, for immigrants to obtain
dual citizenship, which led to almost 69 per cent of the immigrant population having Dutch
nationality. See Howley and Hein (1999).
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