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a Muslim excludes the possibility of being a Catholic); to include or be included by B(Buddhism
includes Zen); or A and B may be expected to co-exist (being a Jain and being a vegetarian) or not
to co-exist (being a Quaker and a soldier).
Locations of Religious Identity
Having indicated something of the general permutations and combinations within and between
boundaries, the rest of this article is devoted to comparing different ideal typical locations for
religious identity. The question that is being asked is what criteria are considered to be necessary,
suficient or desirable for an individual to be eligible for membership of a particular religion.
Drawing on the possible variations associated with boundary drawing outlined above, the aim is to
explore ways in which, using location as the key variable, the resultant boundaries present an
assortment of challenges to those on either side of the various divides.As nationalism was one of
the variables included in the ISSR conference, more space will be devoted to considering its claim
to locate religious identity than will be spent on the other types, but the other types are important
for comparative purposes in so far as they highlight potential variations in boundary construction
and maintenance.
The Cosmic Location
With the first type, the cosmic location for religious identity, there is no boundary between sacred
and profane because everything is imbued with the sacred. For Deism, pantheism, panentheism,
new religious movementsor New Age spiritualities that embrace such a perspective, access to a
religious location is not theoretically necessary as one is, by virtue of one’s very existence, part of
the sacred. There are, however, various methods advocated to facilitate people becoming aware of
and able to appreciate fully their spiritual or numinous self, and/or becoming ‘‘entuned’’ with the
universe or the Cosmic Christ. This perspective presents a challenge to many of those who do not
share it, especially those who are concerned with preserving the distinctions of the status quo. The
problem is that the concept of cosmic accessibility to the sacred for everyone does not attack so
much as dissolve boundaries and is, thus, perceived as threatening to bring about chaos and lack of
order or awareness of distinctions between Good and Evil, Truth and Falsity, and/or Godly and
Satanic. At the same time, perhaps somewhat paradoxically,one can find those who espouse the
cosmic location themselves excluding those who draw sharp boundaries—evangelical Christians
being a particular target for categorization as the ‘‘other’’ by believers in a cosmic location for
religious identity.
The Global Location
Although prima facie similar to cosmic religion, there is an explicit and sharp boundary drawn in
the global perspective between those who have accepted the Universal God/religion and those who
have not. The boundary is infinitely permeable in that the religious identity is open to all who will
hear the Word, take Jesus into their hearts or embrace whatever kind of acceptance of The Truth is
required. Conversion may be achieved by missionary zeal, by the sword or by the dictate of the
ruler. Many Protestant missionaries and members of new religions are global in outlook, being
anxious to bring about as many conversions as possible. This multi-national perspective can,
however, be perceived as being antinational and, as such, a threat to the national boundaries that
are erected by our next category.
The National Location
The national location is ostensibly defined by a geo-political boundary. Among the obvious
examples are the various Christian Orthodox Churches, be they Russian, Bulgarian, Romanian or
Greek. Such boundaries have been reinforced for centuries by the historical weight of rich cultural
and political heritages that have survived a wide variety of circumstances. During the Ottoman
Empire, religious and national identity were inextricably entwined in an administrative system for
non-Muslims—Jewish, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic millets were governed by their
respective religious hierarchies, each with its own schools, hospitals, legal and other institutions,
in some ways not unlike the pillars that were to be found more recently in The Netherlands or, in