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The ritual bath, the mikveh (gathering of waters), is an ancient Jewish tradition relating to the
concept of taharah (ritual purity) and tumah (ritual impurity). In biblical times, the ritual purity
system related to Temple worship. Taharah, in its original meaning, referred to a state of being
able to approach sancta (such as the Temple) and tumah referred to a state of being unable to
approach the same sancta, because of contact with death, illness, or with mysterious forces of life
such as semen or childbirth (see Leviticus 12-15). Impurity could be contracted by approaching a
corpse, by having a seminal emission, by certain illnesses, and by childbirth or menstruation. In
modern times, the condition of tumah is now usually used to refer to women who have
menstruated, given birth, or had an unusual vaginal discharge (a woman in a state of menstrual
“impurity” is called niddah). Immersion in a mikveh can remove certain kinds of tumah, including
the kind caused by menstruation and childbirth.
Since Talmudic times, Jews no longer relate to the laws of purity as a preparation for Temple
worship. Anyone may approach a synagogue or a Torah, even if he or she is ritually impure. A
Jewish man does not need to ritually immerse in order to pray if he has had a seminal emission,
though in early Talmudic times he would have had to. However, according to biblical law, it is
forbidden to have sexual intercourse with women who are menstruating or have recently given
birth, until they have ceased bleeding, waited a certain period of time, and ritually immersed (Lev.
12:1-8; Lev. 15:19-30). Jewish legal authorities held that law to be binding even in the absence of
a Temple. So traditionally, married Jewish women have continued to immerse in a ritual bath
following their menses, before returning to a sexual relationship with their husbands. This
practice, euphemistically called taharat hamishpachah (family purity), was considered by the
Talmud to be one of the three special commandments given to women. Women observed it in
every Jewish community and continue to observe it all over the world.
Since rivers are not the most modest or comfortable places to bathe in the nude, specially
constructed baths that collect rainwater have been part of Jewish communities for millennia.
Women go to these baths accompanied by a mikveh attendant, or shomeret (guardian), who checks
to make sure that there are no stray foreign substances on the body before immersion takes place.
mikveh is also used as a ritual “changemaker” to effect the conversion of non-Jews to Judaism.
Because of its uses, mikveh is associated with spiritual change and renewal – it is, in effect, a
rebirth ceremony. Men sometimes use mikveh as a cleansing ritual prior to Shabbat and holidays –
this is a mystical practice observed by mystics and hasidim, among others. As will be noted later
in this article, some individuals now use immersion in the mikveh as a healing ritual from illness
or trauma, or to mark life events as varied as ordination, menopause, miscarriage, and divorce. But
the primary use of mikveh is still by women who are observing the laws of taharat hamishpachah.
As a rebirth ceremony with ancient roots, mikveh connects Jews with their earliest spiritual
practices.
Some modern Jewish feminists critique the practice of mikveh as degrading or potentially
degrading to the female body. They point to Talmudic and medieval texts that describe women as
disgusting because of their menses, and other Talmudic, medieval and kabbalistic texts that speak
of tumah as the result of spiritual decay or evil forces. Some also point out that for thousands of
years, men have had no similar cycle of purity and impurity, so the state of impurity is only
associated with women. These elements surrounding the use of mikveh cause some to reject the
practice. Other women, including some who define themselves as feminists, feel compelled by the
traditional practice of mikveh because of its Torah origin, its focus on the bodies of women, its
emphasis on the spiritual potency of the menstrual cycle, and its potential for giving women
“alone time.” Still others cannot accept a traditional practice, but have revised the practice of
mikveh to fit their own spiritual needs and to eliminate rituals and customs that they find
problematic.