dinamica social libro

318 CAPÍTULO 9 Fundamentos del comportamiento de los grupos
Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behavior, 3a ed.
(Nueva York: McGraw-Hill, 1981).
33. G. H. Seijts y G. P. Latham, “The Effects of Goal Setting and
Group Size on Performance in a Social Dilemma”, Canadian
Journal of Behavioural Science 32, no. 2 (2000), pp. 104-116.
34. Shaw, Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behavior.
35. Ver, por ejemplo, D. R. Comer, “A Model of Social Loafing in
Real Work Groups”, Human Relations, junio de 1995, pp. 647-
667; S. M. Murphy, S. J. Wayne, R. C. Liden, y B. Erdogan,
“Understanding Social Loafing: The Role of Justice Perceptions
and Exchange Relationships”, Human Relations, enero de 2003,
pp. 61-84; R. C. Liden, S. J. Wayne, R. A. Jaworski, y N. Bennett,
“Social Loafing: A Field Investigation”, Journal of Management,
abril de 2004, pp. 285-304.
36. W. Moede, “Die Richtlinien der Leistungs-Psychologie”,
Industrielle Psychotechnik 4 (1927), pp. 193-207. Ver también D. A.
Kravitz y B. Martin, “Ringelmann Rediscovered: The Original
Article”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, mayo de 1996,
pp. 936-941.
37. Ver, por ejemplo, J. A. Shepperd, “Productivity Loss in Per -
formance Groups: A Motivation Analysis”, Psychological Bulletin,
enero de 1993, pp. 67-81; y S. J. Karau y K. D. Williams, “Social
Loafing: A Meta-analytic Review and Theoretical Integration”,
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, octubre de 1993, pp.
681-706.
38. S. G. Harkins y K. Szymanski, “Social Loafing and Group
Evaluation”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, diciembre
de 1989, pp. 934-941.
39. A. Gunnthorsdottir y A. Rapoport, “Embedding Social
Dilemmas in Intergroup Competition Reduces Free-Riding”,
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 101 (2006),
pp. 184-199.
40. Para conocer algo de la controversia que rodea la definición de
cohesión, ver J. Keyton y J. Springston, “Redefining Cohesiveness
in Groups”, Small Group Research, mayo de 1990, pp. 234-254.
41. B. Mullen y C. Cooper, “The Relation between Group
Cohesiveness and Performance: An Integration”, Psychological
Bulletin, marzo de 1994, pp. 210–227; P. M. Podsakoff, S. B.
MacKenzie y M. Ahearne, “Moderating Effects of Goal
Acceptance on the Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness
and Productivity”, Journal of Applied Psychology, diciembre de
1997, pp. 974-983; y D. J. Beal, R. R. Cohen, M. J. Burke y C. L.
McLendon, “Cohesion and Performance in Groups: A Metaanalytic
Clarification of Construct Relations”, Journal of Applied
Psychology, diciembre de 2003, pp. 989-1004.
42. Ibid.
43. Con base en J. L. Gibson, J. M. Ivancevich, y J. H. Donnelly, Jr.,
Organizations, 8a ed. (Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin, 1994), p. 323.
44. N. Foote, E. Matson, L. Weiss, y E. Wenger, “Leveraging Group
Knowledge for High-Performance Decision-Making”, Organi -
zational Dynamics 31, no. 2 (2002), pp. 280-295.
45. Ver N. R. F. Maier, “Assets and Liabilities in Group Problem
Solving: The Need for an Integrative Function”, Psychological
Review, abril de 1967, pp. 239-249; G. W. Hill, “Group Versus
Individual Performance: Are N+1 Heads Better Than One?”
Psychological Bulletin, mayo de 1982, pp. 517-539; A. E. Schwartz y
J. Levin, “Better Group Decision Making”, Supervisory
Management, junio de 1990, p. 4; y R. F. Martell y M. R. Borg, “A
Comparison of the Behavioral Rating Accuracy of Groups and
Individuals”, Journal of Applied Psychology, febrero de 1993, pp.
43-50.
46. D. Gigone y R. Hastie, “Proper Analysis of the Accuracy of
Group Judgments”, Psychological Bulletin, enero de 1997, pp. 149-
167; y B. L. Bonner, S. D. Sillito, y M. R. Baumann, “Collective
Estimation: Accuracy, Expertise, and Extroversion as Sources of
Intra-Group Influence”, Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 103 (2007), pp. 121-133.
47. Ver, por ejemplo, W. C. Swap and Associates, Group Decision
Making (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1984).
48. D. D. Henningsen, M. G. Cruz, y M. L. Miller, “Role of Social
Loafing in Predeliberation Decision Making”, Group Dynamics:
Theory, Research, and Practice 4, no. 2 (junio de 2000), pp. 168-
175.
49. J. H. Davis, Group Performance (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,
1969); J. P. Wanous y M. A. Youtz, “Solution Diversity and the
Quality of Group Decisions”, Academy of Management Journal,
marzo de 1986, pp. 149-159; y R. Libby, K. T. Trotman, e I.
Zimmer, “Member Variation, Recognition of Expertise, and
Group Performance”, Journal of Applied Psychology, febrero de
1987, pp. 81-87.
50. I. L. Janis, Groupthink (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982); W.
Park, “A Review of Research on Groupthink”, Journal of
Behavioral Decision Making, julio de 1990, pp. 229-245; J.N Choi y
M. U. Kim, “The Organizational Application of Groupthink and
Its Limits in Organizations”, Journal of Applied Psychology, abril
1999, pp. 297-306; y W.W. Park, “A Comprehensive Empirical
Investigation of the Relationship Among Variables of the
Groupthink Model”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, diciembre
2000, pp. 873-887.
51. Janis, Groupthink.
52. Ibid.
53. G. Moorhead, R. Ference, y C. P. Neck, “Group Decision Fiascos
Continue: Space Shuttle Challenger and a Revised Groupthink
Framework”, Human Relations, mayo de 1991, pp. 539-550; E. J.
Chisson, The Hubble Wars (Nueva York: HarperPerennial, 1994);
y C. Covault, “Columbia Revelations Alarming E-Mails Speak for
Themselves. But Administrator O’Keefe Is More Concerned
About Board Findings on NASA Decision-Making”, Aviation
Week & Space Technology, 3 de marzo de 2003, p. 26.
54. J. Eaton, “Management Communication: The Threat of Group -
think”, Corporate Communication 6, no. 4 (2001), pp. 183-192.
55. M. E. Turner y A. R. Pratkanis, “Mitigating Groupthink by
Stimulating Constructive Conflict”, en C. De Dreu y E. Van de
Vliert (eds.), Using Conflict in Organizations (Londres: Sage,
1997), pp. 53-71.
56. Ibid, p. 68.
57. Ver N. R. F. Maier, Principles of Human Relations (Nueva York: Wiley,
1952); I. L. Janis, Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy
Decisions and Fiascoes, 2a ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982);
C. R. Leana, “A Partial Test of Janis’ Groupthink Model: Effects
of Group Cohesiveness and Leader Behavior on Defective
Decision Making”, Journal of Management, primavera de 1985,
pp. 5-17; y N. Richardson Ahlfinger y J. K. Esser, “Testing of
Groupthink Model: Effects of Promotional Leadership and
Conformity Predisposition”, Social Behavior & Personnality 29,
no. 1 (2001), pp. 31-41.
58. Ver D. J. Isenberg, “Group Polarization: A Critical Review and
Meta-Analysis”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, diciembre
de 1986, pp. 1141-1151; J. L. Hale y F. J. Boster, “Comparing
Effect Coded Models of Choice Shifts”, Communication Research
Report, abril de 1988, pp. 180-186; y P. W. Paese, M. Bieser, y M.
E. Tubbs, “Framing Effects and Choice Shifts in Group Decision
Making”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Proceses,
octubre de 1993, pp. 149-165.
59. Ver, por ejemplo, N. Kogan y M. A. Wallach, “Risk Taking as a
Function of the Situation, the Person, and the Group”, en New