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above 3 . The chance of the Turkish Republic vvas that Mustafa Kemal andhis follovvers were authoritarian by necessity and not by ideology, in contrastto other non-democratic regimes in Europe, betvveen the tvvo WorldWars. As noted above, the Kemalists' overarching goal of raising thecountry to the level of the "contemporary civilization", i.e. Westernsocieties, included modernization and secularization as a first priority,and democratization as a later priority. In fact, they made tvvo controlledattempts to create opposition parties (Progressive RepublicanParty in 1924 and Free Republican Party in 1930), but both experiencesfailed.The authoritarian modernization process vvas instrumental in creatingcertain conditions vvhich facilitated the emeregence of a democracylater. These included a Republic based on the principle of popular sovereignty;the legitimisation of the modernization through an elected parliament;various institutional arrangements to routinize the charismatic authorityof Atatürk (the "Father of the Turks"); the separation of the Stateand religion. The priority vvas given to secularization and socio-economicas well as cultural modernization. These vvere to be protected, if necessaryat the expense of democracy. This option became clear early, follovvingthe 1925 Sheikh Said revolt vvhich expressed a mixture of rural, Islamistand Kurdish resistance, in eastern Anatolia. The instrument ofmodernization vvas to be the State elites only. The groups vvhich vvere notvvithin the State framevvork, such as the ones organized along religion andethnicity, as vvell as leftist movements and social classes; vvere eitherbanned or considered vvith suspicion. The approach to modernity vvasnon-participative, solidaristic and nationalistic.High stateness, civil society and individuation: A strong "State tradition"is central to the Ottoman-Turkish historical formation 4 . The modernState established by the Kemalists had continued this pattern 5 . Gramsci'scharacterization of the Eastern European countries, vvhere "the state is verything",vvhile society is "primitive and gelatinous", in opposition to theWest, vvhere the state is "the moat" of the civil society, vvhich is a fortress-like"Study structure" 6 , applied also in Turkey, at least until the1950s. The republican State elites monopolized political povver, initiatedand carried through the cultural and social reforms, created a State-led na-3. For a more detailed analysis, see Kazancıgil, Ali (1991), "Democracy in MüslimLands: Turkey in Comparative Perspective", International Social Science Journal,N. 1128.4. Heper, Metin (1983), The State Tradition in Turkey, Walmington, UK, The EothemPress.5. Kazancıgil, Ali (1994), "High Stateness in a Müslim Society: the Case of Turkey", inDoğan, M. and Kazancıgil, A. (Eds), Comparing Nations, Oxford, Blackvvell.6. Birnbaum, Pierre (1986), "State, Ideologies and Collective Action in VVestern Europe",in Kazancıgil, A. (Ed), The State in Global Perspective, Aldershot, UK, Gower/UNESCO.235